Domain:           Eukaryota

Kingdom:        Animalia

Phylum:           Arthropoda

Class:              Insecta

Order:              Lepidoptera

Family:           Gelechiidae

Genus:            Sitotroga

Species:         S. cerealella Binomial

Name:           Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier)

The grain moth is found throughout the warmer parts of the world. It is a pest of stored maize and a very broad range of other stored products. The Angoumois grain moth is mostly found in warmer climates. But the smaller populations of the moth have been documented in colder climates, such as Russia, with several recordings of their presence in imported products in the United Kingdom, however the moth has not established itself there [10]. Worldwide distribution. In the Indian subcontinent, the pest is more abundant in the mountainous areas or where the climate is rather mild.

Host Range

The grain moth has a very broad host range. The larvae (caterpillars) feed internally on maize grains. They feed on stored grain such as, paddy, maize, jowar, barley and wheat (rarely), especially whole corn. The larvae require whole kernels or caked material for development. They bore into the kernel, pupate and emerge through a hole cut on the outer surface of the kernel. They are active at low temperatures and prefer wheat, barley, corn, rice, sorghum, millet barley, rye, corn, oats, rice and various seeds. The larvae and adults of the Angoumois grain moth feed on the seeds and kernels of cereal crops, most commonly wheat, barley, sorghum, rice, rye, triticale and maize. The standard diet requirements for the larvae consists of corn starch, glycerol, casein, yeast, and wheat germ found within the reproductive products of cereal crops. The adults, however, do not feed themselves and instead just reproduce, meaning it is only the larva that actually deal damage directly. More unusually, the caterpillars have been recorded to eat other dry plant matter, such as plant specimens stored in herbaria.

Egg: The ovoid eggs are initially white when laid, but soon turn a shade of red and measure approximately 2 millimetres long[3].

Larva: Larvae bore into kernels of cereal grains, pupate and emerge through a hole cut on the outer surface of the kernel. Though rarely seen due to their growth stages taking place within a single grain, larvae of the Angoumois grain moth are yellowish-white with a small yellowish-brown head[4] and 10–15 millimetres in length. Larvae are white with a yellowish to brown head and dark reddish-brown mouthparts. Pupa – Pupates in cocoon inside the grain.

Adult: Adult moths are a buff, tan or golden color and about 1/3 inch long. The wingspan is 1/2 inch, and the rear edges of the wings are fringed. The average lifespan of the adult Angoumois grain moth is 15 days,[5] with a maximum of 30 days if living under the optimal temperature.[6] Adult Angoumois grain moths have a wingspan from 10–15 millimetres and a body length of 5–10 millimetres[7]. Like most moths, they have 4 wings, 6 legs and are brownish-grey, or pale brown in colour. They exhibit dark spots on their tapering forewings, about two-thirds from the base of their wings. Their uniquely curved hind wings give them a distinguishing characteristic from other moths, with hairs along the edge of the wings[8]. The forewings are golden-yellow, with their light grey hind wings giving the whole moth an overall brown colour. Adult males are differentiated by a black thin and pointed abdomen whereas adult females express a colorless bulky and long abdomen[9].

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Angoumois grain moths are occasionally found as pantry pests in homes, but they can be serious pests in commercial grain storage. The optimal temperature at which it can survive is around 30 °C (86 °F), with a relatively high humidity of around 75% providing optimal conditions for hatching.[11] Generally, the moth’s habitat is predominantly situated within areas of agricultural development and agroecosystems.[12] Grain storage, warehouses, bins, and pantries. Larvae feed on many types of whole grains. They prefer damp grain over dry grain.

Each Female lays 100-180 eggs on cereal seeds, which the hatching larvae enter immediately. They feed on one or more grains and pupate therein, leaving a typically round hole. The moth lives for 1-2 weeks and may complete 5-6 annual generations. A full grown larva is about 5 mm long, with a white body and yellow brown head. The adult is a buff, grey yellow, brown or straw coloured moth, measuring about 10-12 mm in wing expanse. The characteristic feature is the presence of the narrow pointed wings fringed with long hair. Breeding takes place from April to October. The insect overwinters as a hibernating larva and as the season warms up, it pupates in early spring. Females start laying eggs singly or in batches on or near the grain. The eggs are small and white, when freshly laid, turning reddish later on. A single female lays, on an average, 150 eggs, usually within a week after mating. Egg period is 4-8 days. The larval stage may last about 3 weeks. Before pupation, the larva constructs a silken cocoon in a cavity. Pupal period is 9 -12 days and the adult live for about 4 – 10 days. During the active season, the life-cycle is completed in about 50 days. Several generations completed in a year.

Angoumois grain moth larvae feed on a number of whole kernel grains. Their feeding causes a reduction in grain weight and quality. Heavily infested grain smells bad and is less attractive for consumption. Corn cribs infested with this insect will contain ears with small holes on individual kernels. Most problems with the Angoumois grain moth in corn occur in crib-stored ears, although the infestation may have begun in the field. Corn infested in the field may harbor larvae feeding within corn kernels. When the newly harvested, infested corn is cribbed, the larvae continue to develop, pupate, and emerge as adults, which in turn deposit eggs on uninfested kernels. Larval feeding produces large cavities within infested grain. Does not bind grain with silks as many moths do. Infestations produce abundant heat and moisture that may encourage mould growth and attract secondary pests. Adults do not feed on commodity The larvae feed on and burrow in stored grains, damaging as many as 25-60% of wheat seeds, 10-15% of barley; half of such seeds do not germinate.

1. Larvae also exhibit the behaviour of producing silky tunnels between kernels in the storage of grains that have no external barrier, allowing for the larvae to travel freely between its food sources.[18]
2. Larvae damage grains, adults being harmless. It attacks both in fields and stores.
3. Grains are hollowed out.
4. In stored bulk grain, infestation remains confined to upper 30 cms depth only.
5. Caterpillars enter the grain through crack or abrasion on the grain.

1. Unpleasant odour of grains is symptomatic of Angoumois grain moth infestation,[31]

2. The discolouration is caused by the larva borrowing a small chamber within it.

3. Grains that are bored into by the moth larvae can no longer germinate.[33]

4. Heating of grain may be an indication of presence.

5. Presence of adults flying nearby is an indication of infestation.

The Angoumois grain moth indirectly provides a food source to some insects by producing broken grains left after pupation and emergence of adult moths which are then consumed by those species.[30] The Angoumois grain moth, despite being considered a pest, acts as a food source within ecosystems for the bird, bat and insect populations. The natural predators of the moth’s eggs and larvae are almost exclusively parasites and pathogens, most notably Pteromalus cerealellae and Blattisocius tarsalis which consume the eggs.

In commercial/agricultural grain storage, control is complicated and requires the fundamental pest management steps of bin sanitation, grain leveling, aeration, monitoring etc

1. Before buying an item in the store, check that the bag or container is well sealed and undamaged.

2. Good sanitation is important.

3. Most pantry pest problems can be prevented by using all dried food within 2 to 4 months of purchase. Spices and other products kept for longer periods should be sealed in airtight containers.

4. Heat or cold treatments can eliminate pests in some food items such as pet food, bulk grains and beans, and home-grown dried beans or peas. Put the product in the oven at 130 degrees F for 1 hour, or in the freezer for 7 to 14 days. To prevent an infestation, store foods that may attract pantry pests in the refrigerator or freezer.

Late planting and early harvest is a potentially useful method for reducing pre-harvest losses caused by the grain moth. Methods of reducing humidity in grain stores such as plastering the walls with mud can reduce or help minimize infestation levels. Periodic inspection and removal of infestations can be effective especially if the grain is closely packed so that infestations are limited to the outermost layers. The use of resistant varieties can be effective for some crops. Plant resistance: Resistant varieties of maize millet, rice and wheat have been developed in many parts of the world. Irradiation: Gamma radiation of the pupae at 32°C reduced fecundity and egg hatching, and retarded growth of the larvae of the F1 progeny.

The grain moth is affected by a variety of parasites, parasitoids and predators that affect it at all stages. The editors could not find information on the effectiveness of these species as grain moth control agents. 1. When present in the same environment with other insects such as Rhyzopertha dominica and Tribolium castaneum, the population of the moth decreases as a result of interspecific competition. 2. Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium is a prominent example of a pathogen that naturally occurs in the environment and kills the moth in its larval stage. 3. Species of the parasitoid genus Trichogramma (Trichogrammatidae) attack the eggs of S. cerealella in different parts of the world.

Standard fumigation and insecticide treatments can be effective against grain moths. For example, for maize stored on the husk a combination of fumigation with phosphine and treatment with methacrifos has been found to be effective. However, grain moths appear to have developed resistance to some insecticides in some parts of the world. Pesticides are poisons so it is essential to follow all safety precautions on labels.

Standard fumigation with phosphine and treatments with insecticides like organophosphates, pyrethroids and spinosad can be effective, but the pest has developed resistance to some insecticides in several parts of the world. Other chemicals tried are edible oils, like soya bean oil and cottonseed oil and agricultural waste materials, extracts of various plants, like spearmint, cottonseed and eucalyptus and the toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT).

On rare occasions, insecticides may be needed to control difficult infestations. Insecticide sprays may be applied to crevices and void areas around cupboards, drawers, and pantries. Before spraying, remove all food products, utensils, and containers from the treatment area. Allow the spray to dry before placing clean shelf paper on the shelves and returning food, utensils, or containers to the pantry.

For areas where long-term residual control is required, look for products containing synthetic pyrethroids, such as permethrin, esfenvalerate, cyfluthrin, or bifenthrin. Aerosol fog products can temporarily suppress infestations of flying insects, but these fogs will not kill pantry pests in food containers or protected locations. Before using an insecticide, always make sure that the label says that the product may be used indoors and in kitchens. Never spray food, dishes, utensils, or cooking items with pesticides

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